Diseases & Conditions
Clear, practical guides written by our specialists: what the condition is, symptoms, when to seek help, how it is diagnosed and treated.
Cardiology
Cardiac arrhythmias
Arrhythmias are disturbances of the heart's rhythm — too fast, too slow or irregular. Some are harmless; others, such as atrial fibrillation, need treatment to prevent complications.
Atrial fibrillation
An irregular and often fast heart rhythm. It increases the risk of clots and stroke, but is well treatable.
Aortic valve stenosis
Aortic stenosis is a narrowing of the valve through which blood leaves the heart for the body. Mild forms are followed with echocardiography; severe forms with symptoms are treated with valve replacement.
Left ventricular hypertrophy
Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is thickening of the wall of the heart's main pumping chamber. It is most often caused by hypertension; controlling the cause can reduce it over time.
Arterial hypertension
Hypertension is a sustained rise in arterial blood pressure. It usually causes no symptoms, but over time it damages the heart, brain, kidneys and blood vessels. Accurate measurement is the first step.
Myocardial infarction
A myocardial infarction occurs when part of the heart muscle is damaged by lack of blood, usually because of a blockage in a coronary artery. It is an emergency — every minute counts.
Dyslipidemia
High cholesterol — especially LDL — contributes to atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke. It causes no symptoms; it is detected with a blood test and treated according to individual risk.
Atherosclerosis of the carotid arteries
Carotid atherosclerosis is a build-up of plaques in the neck arteries that supply the brain. Treatment aims to reduce the risk of stroke — mainly by controlling cholesterol and blood pressure and stopping smoking.
Palpitations
Palpitations are the feeling that your heart is beating fast, hard or “skipping”.
Diabetes and heart disease
People with diabetes are at higher risk of heart attack, stroke and heart failure.
Diabetes and high cholesterol
In diabetes, cholesterol often follows a particular pattern: high LDL, low HDL and high triglycerides.
How to measure blood pressure accurately at home
Home measurement shows your real blood pressure, away from the anxiety of a visit.
Chest pain: when to see a cardiologist
Chest pain has many causes, most of them not from the heart, but some are emergencies.
Fast heart rate at rest
The resting pulse is usually 60–100 beats per minute.
Diabetes and high blood pressure
Diabetes and high blood pressure often occur together, and each adds to the other’s risk to the heart, brain and kidneys.
Coronary artery disease and angina pectoris
Coronary artery disease affects the arteries that supply the heart muscle with blood.
Heart failure
Heart failure means that the heart does not pump blood as it should for the body’s needs, or that it fills and relaxes poorly.
Premature heartbeats (extrasystoles)
Extrasystoles are premature heartbeats: an electrical impulse appears earlier than expected and the heart contracts ahead of time.
Heart valve disease
The heart valves direct the flow of blood in one direction only.
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the HCV virus.
Elevated transaminases (ALT and AST)
The transaminases ALT and AST may come back elevated during a routine check-up, even without any symptoms.
Mitral valve stenosis
Mitral stenosis is a narrowing of the valve that separates the left atrium from the left ventricle, which makes it harder for blood to flow from the lungs into the rest of the heart.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid produces more hormone than the body needs.
Type 1 diabetes in adults
Type 1 diabetes can appear at any age, including adulthood.
Prediabetes and insulin resistance
Prediabetes is a condition in which glycemia is higher than normal but does not reach the criteria for diabetes.
Overweight and obesity
Overweight and obesity are linked to excess accumulation of fatty tissue.
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, known as PCOS (in some newer sources also called polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome), is a hormonal and metabolic condition that can affect ovulation, the menstrual cycle and long-term health.
Nutrition and home care for diabetes
Suitable nutrition is part of the treatment of diabetes and of reducing risk in prediabetes.
Thyroiditis
Thyroiditis covers several conditions that cause inflammation of the thyroid gland.
Diseases of the adrenal glands
The adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and produce hormones that affect blood pressure, metabolism and the response to stress.
Endocrine infertility
Hormonal disorders can affect ovulation, sperm production and reproductive function.
Endocrine tumors
Endocrine tumors develop in glands or cells that produce hormones.
Gastro-hepatology
Gastritis
Gastritis is inflammation of the lining of the stomach. The most common causes are Helicobacter pylori infection and certain medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Reflux occurs when stomach contents flow back into the esophagus and cause heartburn or regurgitation. When the complaints are frequent or cause complications, we speak of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Stomach and duodenal ulcer
A peptic ulcer is a sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum. The two main causes are Helicobacter pylori and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Helicobacter pylori infection
Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium that lives in the stomach and can cause chronic gastritis and ulcers. It is diagnosed with simple tests and treated with a combination of medicines, followed by a test of cure.
Fatty liver disease
Hepatic steatosis (fatty liver) is the accumulation of fat in the liver. The most common form, MASLD, is linked to overweight, diabetes and cholesterol. What matters most is the degree of fibrosis.
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver caused by the HBV virus. It can be acute or chronic; the chronic form, if not followed up, can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer. The vaccine prevents it very effectively.
Liver cirrhosis
Cirrhosis is the advanced stage of chronic liver damage, in which normal tissue is replaced by fibrous tissue. Treating the cause and regular follow-up can slow the disease and prevent complications.
Esophageal varices
Esophageal varices are dilated veins in the esophagus, usually as a result of portal hypertension in cirrhosis. They cause no symptoms until they bleed — which is why detecting them and preventing bleeding are vitally important.
Gallstones (cholelithiasis)
Gallstones are hardened deposits that form in the gallbladder. Many people have no symptoms; when they cause pain (biliary colic), the most common treatment is laparoscopic removal of the gallbladder.
Esophageal cancer
Esophageal cancer develops in the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach. The main warning sign is progressive difficulty swallowing, which should be assessed without delay.
Bowel and anorectal conditions
Diarrhea
Diarrhea is stools that are more watery or more frequent than usual. Most acute episodes pass within a few days; the main risk is dehydration.
Constipation
Constipation includes hard stools, straining, infrequent bowel movements or a feeling of incomplete emptying. Most cases improve with fiber, fluids, exercise and, when needed, suitable laxatives.
Irritable bowel syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a disorder of gut–brain interaction, with recurrent abdominal pain and changes in bowel habits. It does not damage the bowel and does not increase the risk of cancer.
Ulcerative colitis
Ulcerative colitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the large intestine, usually starting in the rectum. With regular treatment, most patients achieve long periods without symptoms.
Crohn's disease
Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory disease that can affect any part of the digestive tract, most often the end of the small intestine and the colon. Treatment aims to control inflammation and prevent complications.
Colon polyps
Polyps are small growths on the lining of the colon or rectum. Most are benign, but some types can turn into cancer over the years — so detecting and removing them during colonoscopy matters.
Hemorrhoids
Hemorrhoids are normal vascular structures of the anal canal. When they enlarge or protrude, they cause bleeding, itching or swelling — hemorrhoidal disease. Most are treated with simple measures.
Anal fissure
An anal fissure is a small tear in the skin of the anal canal that causes sharp pain during bowel movements and bright red blood. Most heal with conservative treatment.
Endocrinology
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
A chronic disease in which the body does not use insulin well and blood sugar rises. Good control prevents complications.
Hypothyroidism
The thyroid gland produces fewer hormones than it should. It causes fatigue, sensitivity to cold and weight gain; it is easily treated.
Thyroid nodules
Formations within the thyroid gland, very common. The vast majority are benign, but they need to be assessed.
Diabetes and heart disease
People with diabetes are at higher risk of heart attack, stroke and heart failure.
Diabetes and high cholesterol
In diabetes, cholesterol often follows a particular pattern: high LDL, low HDL and high triglycerides.
Diabetes and high blood pressure
Diabetes and high blood pressure often occur together, and each adds to the other’s risk to the heart, brain and kidneys.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid produces more hormone than the body needs.
Type 1 diabetes in adults
Type 1 diabetes can appear at any age, including adulthood.
Prediabetes and insulin resistance
Prediabetes is a condition in which glycemia is higher than normal but does not reach the criteria for diabetes.
Overweight and obesity
Overweight and obesity are linked to excess accumulation of fatty tissue.
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome, known as PCOS (in some newer sources also called polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome), is a hormonal and metabolic condition that can affect ovulation, the menstrual cycle and long-term health.
Nutrition and home care for diabetes
Suitable nutrition is part of the treatment of diabetes and of reducing risk in prediabetes.
Thyroiditis
Thyroiditis covers several conditions that cause inflammation of the thyroid gland.
Diseases of the adrenal glands
The adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and produce hormones that affect blood pressure, metabolism and the response to stress.
Endocrine infertility
Hormonal disorders can affect ovulation, sperm production and reproductive function.
Endocrine tumors
Endocrine tumors develop in glands or cells that produce hormones.
Rheumatology
Rheumatoid arthritis
An autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of many joints, especially in the hands. Early treatment prevents joint damage.
Osteoarthritis
Wear of joint cartilage, most often in the knees, hips and hands. It causes pain on movement and brief stiffness.
Gouty arthritis (gout)
Sudden attacks of severe joint pain, most often in the big toe, caused by deposits of uric acid crystals.
Ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis
Spondyloarthritides are a group of inflammatory diseases that can affect the spine, the joints and the places where tendons attach to bone.
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the body’s own tissues.
Polymyalgia rheumatica
Polymyalgia rheumatica is an inflammatory condition that usually appears after the age of 50.
Tendinitis and bursitis
Tendinitis is inflammation of a tendon, the structure that connects muscle to bone.
Chronic back pain
Back pain that lasts more than three months is considered chronic.
Internal medicine
Iron deficiency anemia
A drop in hemoglobin because the body lacks iron. It causes fatigue and pallor; the cause must always be found.
Pharyngitis
Pharyngitis (sore throat) is caused by viruses in most cases and is not treated with antibiotics. Only a confirmed group A streptococcal infection needs an antibiotic.
Acute gastroenteritis
Acute gastroenteritis is an infection of the digestive tract that causes diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal cramps. The main treatment is replacing fluids; antibiotics are usually not needed.
Nephrology and urinary tract
Hematuria (blood in the urine)
Hematuria is the presence of blood in the urine — visible to the eye or detected only on a test. It does not automatically mean a serious disease, but every episode should be evaluated.
Recurrent urinary and vaginal infections
Urinary infections and vaginal complaints can cause similar symptoms, but have different causes and treatments. When episodes recur, the correct diagnosis with culture or specific tests is the key.
Chronic kidney disease
Chronic kidney disease is damage to the structure or function of the kidneys that lasts for more than three months.
Proteinuria and hematuria
Proteinuria is the presence of protein in the urine, while hematuria is the presence of blood.
Diabetic and hypertensive nephropathy
High glucose and high blood pressure damage the small vessels of the kidneys.
Kidney stones
Kidney stones are crystal deposits that form in the kidney and can descend into the ureter.
Electrolyte disorders
Electrolytes are minerals dissolved in the blood, such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Gynecology
Gynecological check-up and cervical screening
A gynecological check-up includes a conversation about the cycle, symptoms, contraception and health history, and an examination as needed.
Menstrual cycle disorders
A normal menstrual cycle usually lasts 21 to 35 days, with bleeding of up to about 7 days.
Gynecological infections
Vaginal discharge, itching or burning are frequent complaints.
Menopause and perimenopause
Menopause is established after 12 months without periods.
Family planning and preconception care
Family planning includes choosing a contraceptive method that suits the woman and, when a pregnancy is planned, preparation before conception.
Neurology
Headache and migraine
Headache has many causes, most of them benign.
Dizziness
Dizziness describes several different sensations and is not a single diagnosis.
Numbness and nerve pain
Numbness, tingling and burning pain can be linked to damage to or compression of nerves.
Parkinson's disease and tremor
Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological disease that affects movement and a range of other functions.
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a neurological condition with a recurrent tendency to epileptic seizures, that is, to sudden and excessive electrical discharges in the brain.
Memory disorders
Forgetfulness can be linked to many conditions and does not automatically mean dementia or Alzheimer’s disease.
Follow-up after a stroke
A stroke is caused by blockage of a blood vessel (ischemic stroke, the commonest form) or by cerebral hemorrhage.
Pulmonology
Bronchial asthma
Bronchial asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in which inflammation and variable narrowing of the bronchi cause symptoms that change over time, while the airways overreact to various triggers.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD, causes persistent limitation of airflow and breathlessness.
Chronic cough
In adults, a cough is called chronic when it lasts more than eight weeks.
Pneumonia and follow-up after it
Pneumonia is inflammation of lung tissue, usually from an infection.
Obstructive sleep apnea
Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the upper airway repeatedly narrows or closes during sleep.
Follow-up of pulmonary nodules
A pulmonary nodule is a small rounded lesion seen on lung imaging, usually up to 3 cm.
Oncology
Consultation when a tumor is suspected
A lump, a change on imaging or an abnormal test does not automatically mean cancer.
Explaining the diagnosis and treatment options
A cancer diagnosis is not summed up by the name of the tumor alone.
Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and newer cancer treatments
Cancer treatment may include several methods, used singly or in combination.
Follow-up after cancer treatment ends
The end of active treatment is followed by a follow-up plan.
Cardio-oncology: before, during and after treatment
Cardio-oncology looks after the heart and circulation in patients with cancer.
How to care for a relative with cancer
Caring for a relative with cancer involves help with daily life, watching for symptoms and communicating with the medical team.
General advice during cancer care
Advice during cancer care is tailored to the treatment, symptoms and coexisting conditions.
Biopsy and the worry about “disturbing” a tumor
The phrase “don’t disturb the tumor” is often used out of fear that a biopsy spreads the disease.